Poetic and Prophetic Literature of the Old Testament
RELG 301
Course Notes - The Historical Setting
The beginning of the "Hebrews" is usually reckoned as the call of Abraham to leave his homeland in Mesopotamia, and travel to "the Promised Land - a land which God promised to Abraham and his descendants. This probably occurred around 2,000 BC, during the Bronze Age in the Middle East. (Gen. chapter 12).
Abraham was called to leave an affluent civilization which already had an extensive literature and which would produce poetry such as the Gilgamesh Epic (tales of a Sumerian hero-king), and the Enuma Elish (a creation account).
Abraham and his descendants Isaac and Jacob (whose name was eventually changed to Israel by God) lived nomadic lives, moving around the region between Egypt and the Levant. Many of their utterances, as recorded in Genesis, have both a poetic and a prophetic element.
Jacob's son Joseph, who was sold as a slave in Egypt (Gen. chapters 37, 39), was gifted as a diviner or seer (Gen. 39:20-41:57).
Gen. 41:8 records that there were other diviners in Egypt, and archaeological records attest to the use of divination throughout the ancient Middle East. Divination was mainly an attempt at fortune-telling, and possibly of influencing a god to give a favorable outcome to some problem facing a person. Early divination often involved sacrificing an animal or bird, and examining the entrails or other organs to predict future events. It was an attempt by humans to read the mind of God, and, if possible, to influence God's dealings with them. It was not seen as a call for humans to change their minds and bring them into alignment with the will of God.
Joseph's gift as a diviner was coupled with wisdom. He was able to give the Egyptian Pharaoh advice as to how to prepare for the famine which was about to descend upon Egypt, and as a result he was made the chief administrator of Egypt (Gen. chapter 41)
There are several possible dates of Joseph and the subsequent move of his family to Egypt, but a date of ca.1,700 BC is generally accepted.
As a result of the famine, Jacob's family moved to Egypt, where they settled and stayed for the next four hundred years. Jacob's descendants became the Israelites. They were numerous and eventually the Egyptians regarded them as a threat, enslaved them and mistreated them. As that time God called Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt and return to the land promised to them (Exodus, chapters 1-3). Moses is regarded as more than a prophet, because he was instrumental in bringing the Law of God to the Israelites, and in leading them out of slavery in Egypt and bringing them to the Promised Land. (Deut. 34:10-12)
Moses and his sister Miriam are credited with leading the Israelite victory song at the Exodus (Ex. 14:26 - 15:21). At the end of his life Moses spoke a prophetic song of warning to the Israelites (Deut. 32:24-33:44), and blessed them (Deut., chapter 33). Psalm 90 is also credited to Moses.
The prophetic gifts of leadership and judgment were recognized as coming from God. During the wanderings of the Israelites in the wilderness, Moses found the burden of leadership too much, and seventy elders were appointed to assist in judgment and leadership. At the time of their appointment they evidently displayed some charismatic behavior such that others recognized that they were prophesying. (Numbers 11:11-30; Deut. 1:9-18)
Prophecy was not restricted to the Israelites. Balaam was a non-Israelite, acting as a diviner for hire (Num. 22:7), to pronounce curses or blessings from God. He was hired by Balak, king of Moab, to put a curse on the Israelites, but instead, pronounced three prophetic blessings (Num. 23:18-24, 24:3-9, 24:15-24)
After entering the Promised Land, ca. 1,250 BC, the Israelites were led, first by Joshua, and then by a series of Judges, some of whom exercised a prophetic ministry of leadership and judgment. Among these was the prophetess Deborah, who sang a song of victory when, under her leadership, the Israelites defeated the Canaanite king of Hazor (Judges, 4:4-5:31).
The period of the Judges can be placed as during the early Iron Age - the Philistines and some of the Canaanites had iron weapons, but the Israelites had not yet learned to work with Iron (Judges 4:3, 1 Sam. 13:19-21)
The prophet Samuel was born towards the end of the period of the Judges, ca.1,050 BC. He acted as a judge, a prophet, and a priest (1 Sam. 7:15-17; 9:15-20; 1 Sam. 7:8-9)
Besides Samuel, there were bands of lesser prophets who appear to have been like charismatic preachers or worshippers (1 Sam. 10:5-6, 9-13).
By the time of Elijah and Elisha there were not only prophets who acted as advisors to rulers (1 Kings 22:19-14) but also groups known as "the sons of the prophets" who lived in communities (1 Kings 18:4; 20:34-43; 2 Kings 2:3-7, 15-18; 2 Kings 4:1, 38-44, 22, 6:1-7, 9:1-10) and sometimes acted as disciples or servants of a leading prophet.
During the period of the Kings, the prophets interacted with the kings, either in an official capacity, or as an independent spokesperson. The themes of their messages tended to deal with the faithfulness and conduct of the king and the ruling elite, calling them to forsake idolatry, obey God, and care for the poor and needy.
This sometimes led to dangerous encounters, and took great courage when a prophet spoke out and rebuked a king.
For example,
Samuel had to tell Saul that he was no longer acceptable to God (1 Sam.13:8-14, 15:1-29)
Nathan had to make David face up to his adultery with Bathsheba (2 Sam.12:1-15)
An un-named "man of God" rebuked king Rehoboam (Solomon's son) when he was considering going to war against Jeroboam, the rival king of the northern kingdom of Israel (1 Kings 12:21-24). Another un-named "man of God" pronounced God's displeasure with king Jeroboam's infidelity. (1 Kings 13:1-6). Later in his reign, Jeroboam was rebuked again, through the prophet Ahijah (1 Kings 14:1-18)
Elijah challenged Ahab, king of the northern kingdom of Israel, and had to flee for his life (1 Kings 17:1-6). Three years later, Elijah challenged king Ahab and eight hundred and fifty prophets of Baal and, though he was victorious, he still had to flee from Jezebel's wrath. (1 Kings 18:17-19:21). Later in his reign, Ahab was advised by several un-named prophets (also referred to as "men of God"), and again showed his unwillingness to obey God. (1 Kings 20:13-14 22, 28, 33-43). There was a further confrontation between Ahab and Elijah, after queen Jezebel arranged for the murder of Naboth, the owner of a vineyard. Ahab wanted Naboth's vineyard; Naboth did not want to sell it, so Jezebel arranged a fake trial for Naboth, had him condemned to death, and then told Ahab to go claim the vineyard. This led to Elijah confronting him and pronouncing judgment and a prophecy of the consequences of his action (1 Kings 21:17-24).
Ahab still did not learn, but surrounded himself with four hundred so-called "prophets" who would only speak good to him. Ahab and Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, agreed to join forces to attack Syria. Jehoshaphat realized that Ahab's prophets were not true, and asked for "a prophet of the Lord". Ahab grudgingly called for another prophet, Micaiah, who foretold disaster, and was promptly sent to prison by Ahab. So both kings attacked Syria, and went into battle. Ahab was killed, and Jehoshaphat fled. We are not told what happened to Micaiah. (1 Kings, chapter 22)
Elijah continued as a prophet through the reign of Ahab's son Ahaziah (2 Kings 1:2-17)
Elisha was appointed to follow Elijah as prophet (2 Kings 2:1-15). Elisha acted as advisor to the kings of Israel, Judah, and Edom (Edom was a tributary of Judah at that time) (2 Kings 3:9-27). Elisha also announced the next king of Damascus (2 Kings 8:7-15) and appointed Jehu as the new king of the northern kingdom of Israel (2 Kings 9:1-13) Elisha's ministry continued into the reigns of Jehu's son Jehoahaz, and grandson Joash (also known as Jehoash) (2 Kings 13:14-20)
Amos challenged the king's high priest and the ruling elite in the "King's own chapel" at Bethel. He denounced their greed and their oppression of the poor. He called for repentance, humility, and obedience to God. As a result he was accused of treason and driven out of the chapel. (Amos 7:10, 12-13)
Isaiah had to tell king Hezekiah that his foolish boasting and pride would lead to invasion and conquest by the Babylonians.
Jeremiah was constantly at odds with the ruling elite of Jerusalem for their oppression of the poor. He was also greatly distressed by the idolatry of the people, and by the religious authorities who were leading the people astray. He saw that Jerusalem was going to fall to the Babylonians, and tried to warn rulers and people. For that he was imprisoned several times and threatened with death.
While in prison, he wrote out his warnings, and had his scribe Baruch read them publicly. On hearing the message in the scroll, king Jehoiakim cut it in pieces and threw it into a fire (Jer. chapter 36).
During the reign of Zedekiah, the last king of Judah, Jeremiah was imprisoned again, and remained in prison until Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians (Jer. Chapters 37-38).
After the Fall of Jerusalem, the Babylonians took most of the people into captivity, but left some of the poorer folk to care for the land. The Babylonian general set Jeremiah free (Jer. 39:9-14) and offered him the choice of going to Babylon or of staying in Judah (Jer. 40:2-5). Jeremiah chose to stay in Judah with the governor who had been appointed by the Babylonians (Jer. 40:6). However, the governor was assassinated by one of the remaining royal princes (Jer. 41:1-3), who then fled to the Ammonites.
The people who remained were afraid of reprisals by the Babylonians, and prepared to flee into Egypt. They asked for Jeremiah's advice, and he assured them that they would be safe if they remained in Judah, but in spite of that they chose to go to Egypt, and forced Jeremiah to go with them (Jer. 42:1-43:11)
When Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians in 586 BC the ministry of prophet did not cease, but took on a new depth of meaning. There was no longer a king and royal court to contend with, but there were people in need of hope and leadership.
The themes of the prophets develop to include a call to obedience to God, holiness, mercy, care for the poor and oppressed, and the reassurance that God is in control, the nations are accountable to God, God directs the course of history, and God will provide a means of reconciliation between sinful imperfect human beings and the Holy Almighty God.
Even before the Fall of Jerusalem, Isaiah stressed the Holiness of God, and prophesied that God would provide an "Anointed One", a "Messiah" (Hebrew) or "Christ" (Greek) who would suffer to make atonement for people.
Also, before the Fall of Jerusalem, Jeremiah not only prophesied the Fall of the city and the deportation of the people, but also prophesied that the Exile would last for 70 years, and that after that the people would return to Jerusalem. (Jer.25:1-13, 29:4-11)
While the Jews were in captivity in Babylon, the main challenge was to remain faithful to God. In this, they were encouraged and led by Ezekiel and Daniel
After the return of the Jews to Jerusalem, under the leadership of Ezra and Nehemiah, there were problems with discouragement, sloth, and oppression of the poor, which were addressed by Haggai and Zechariah, and again later by Malachi
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